Resolving the bilingual advantage paradox: The role of individual differences in executive function
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Abstract
The "bilingual advantage" hypothesis—the claim that lifelong bilingualism enhances executive functions (EF)-has been a subject of intense debate. While numerous studies have reported cognitive benefits, a growing body of research has failed to replicate these findings, creating a significant paradox in the field. This article argues that inconsistent results can be better understood by moving beyond a categorical approach that treats bilingualism as a monolithic experience. Building on existing scholarship that has recognized the heterogeneity of bilingual populations, we propose that the cognitive effects of bilingualism are not a universal property but an emergent outcome of a complex interplay of individual difference factors. This paper reviews the conflicting evidence and advocates for a shift towards a continuous, experience-based model, synthesizing research on linguistic factors, sociodemographic variables, and their neural correlates. By integrating evidence from behavioral measures and neuroimaging techniques, we outline a framework for understanding how specific bilingual experiences shape neural plasticity and modulate EF performance. This individual-differences approach offers a path toward resolving the current paradox and has implications for applied linguistics, educational policy, and our understanding of brain-cognition relationships.
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